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The Dirty War (), also known as Process of National Reorganization (), was the name used by the Argentine Military Government for a period of state terrorism in Argentina〔The justification for the Dirty War was the armed actions of the Montoneros and the ERP. From 1969 to 1979, there were 239 kidnappings and 1,020 murders by the guerrillas. During the same period, however, the military kidnapped 7,844 and murdered 7,850. The Psychology of Genocide and Violent Oppression: A Study of Mass Cruelty from Nazi Germany to Rwanda, Richard Morrock, William Marchak, p. 184, McFarland, 2010〕 from roughly 1974〔On July 1, 1974, the elderly President Perón died of heart failure and the fragile political settlement he had forged foundered. In the midst of rising political violence and economic inflation his widow Isabel assumed the presidency. Guerrilla warfare resumed against the army and police and, to a lesser degree, against union leaders and politicians. The ERP began a drive for control of Tucumán, and the Montoneros stormed an army garriison in Formosa. In 1974 the AAA murdered seventy intellectuals and lawyers, by 1975 it was assassinating fifty per week. Revolutionizing Motherhood: The Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo, Marguerite Guzman Bouvard, p. 22, Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2002〕〔The ERP contnued to do battle with military forces and their emissaries even while Perón was in power, but during the second half of 1975 the ERP suffered numerous defeats during assaults on military arsenals. God's Assassins: State Terrorism in Argentina in the 1970s, Patricia Marchak, William Marchak, p. 120, McGill-Queen's Press, 1999,, 2002〕 to 1983 (some sources date the beginning to 1969), during which military and security forces and right-wing death squads in the form of the Argentine Anticommunist Alliance (Triple A)〔Right-wing violence was also on the rise, and an array of death squads was formed from armed sections of the large labor unions, parapolice organizations within the federal and provincial police; and the AAA (Alianza Anticomunista Argentina), founded by Perón's secretary of social welfare, López Rega, with the participation of the federal police. Revolutionizing Motherhood: The Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo, Marguerite Guzman Bouvard, p. 22, Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2002〕〔The ERP and Montoneros began to resemble regular armies, while the Argentine national army responded by mimicking not only the operational organization but also the culture of guerrilla warfare. Political Violence and Trauma in Argentina, Antonius C. G. M. Robben, p. 148, University of Pennsylvania Press, 2011〕 hunted down and killed left-wing guerrillas,〔What is certain is that, in spite of a spate of spectacular bombings and killings in 1975, the Montoneros committed military and political suicide faster than virtually any other Latin American guerrilla group. They lost eighty percent of their fighters and much of their leadership in 1976. Behind the Disappearances: Argentina's Dirty War Against Human Rights and the United Nations, Iain Guest, p. 19, University of Pennsylvania Press, 1990〕〔In Argentina urban terrorism began on a major scale in 1970 with operations by the People's Revolutionary Army (E.R.P.) and the Montoneros. States of Violence: Nature of Terrorism and Guerilla Warfare, Ashima Jahangir, p. 66, Dominant, 2000〕 political dissidents, and anyone believed to be associated with socialism.〔In 1976 military intervention quickly crushed the Montoneros, the ERP and all other groups that had hoped to make a revolution. Political Parties & Terror, Ami Pedahzur, Leonard Weinberg, p. 60, Routledge, 2013〕〔''Political Violence and Trauma in Argentina,'' Antonius C. G. M. Robben, p. 145, University of Pennsylvania Press, 2007〕〔Marguerite Guzmán Bouvard, ''Revolutionizing Motherhood: The Mothers of the Plaza De Mayo,'' p. 22, Rowman & Littlefield, 1994〕〔("Argentina's Guerrillas Still Intent On Socialism" ), ''Sarasota Herald-Tribune,'' 7 March 1976〕 The victims of the violence were 7,158〔 〔(Hablan de 30.000 desaparecidos y saben que es falso )〕〔(Videla admitió la muerte y desaparición de "7 u 8 mil personas" )〕〔(Fernández Meijide calificó de “mentira” la cifra de 30 mil desaparecidos )〕-30,000 left-wing activists, terrorists and militants, including trade unionists, students, journalists and Marxists and Peronist guerrillas〔(Argentina’s Dirty War. Guy Gugliotta. )〕 and their support network in the Montoneros believed to be 150,000〔The army estimated Montonero troops to be about 30,000 strong, with another 150,000 people active in the mass front organisation and support networks at the beginning of 1975. Reframing the Transitional Justice Paradigm: Women's Affective Memories in Post-Dictatorial Argentina, Jill Stockwell, p. 18, Springer Science & Business Media, 29 Jan 2014〕-250,000-strong and 60,000-strong in the ERP,〔In the outlying provinces the Montoneros and the ERP killed hundreds. With about 5,000 heavily armed fighters and around 60,000 sympathizers in the ERP, plus 25,000 armed Montoneros backed by up to 250,000 sympathizers, the revolutionaries were a serious threat. The ERP actually took over parts of Tucuman province, and in 1975 the army launched full-scale military operations against them. Despite their ideological differences, the ERP and Montoneros became allies. Modern Tyrants: The Power and Prevalence of Evil in Our Age, Daniel Chirot, p. 282, Princeton University Press, 1996〕 as well as alleged sympathizers.〔("Orphaned in Argentina's dirty war, man is torn between two families" ), ''The Washington Post'', 11 February 2010〕 The official number of disappeared is reported to be 13,000.〔(Una duda histórica: no se sabe cuántos son los desaparecidos )〕 Some 10,000 of the "disappeared" were guerrillas of the Montoneros (MPM) and the Marxist People's Revolutionary Army (ERP).〔("El ex líder de los Montoneros entona un «mea culpa» parcial de su pasado" ), ''El Mundo'', 4 May 1995〕〔(''''Determinants Of Gross Human Rights Violations By State And State-Sponsored Actors In Brazil, Uruguay, Chile, And Argentina (1960–1990)'' )', Wolfgang S. Heinz & Hugo Frühling, p. 626, Springer, 1999, Google Books〕 The leftist guerrillas caused at least 6,000 casualties among the military, police forces and civilian population, according to a ''National Geographic Magazine'' article in the mid-1980s.〔''National Geographic'', Volume 170, p. 247, National Geographic Society, 1986〕 The "disappeared" included those thought to be a political or ideological threat to the military junta, even vaguely, and they were killed in an attempt by the junta to silence the opposition and break the determination of the guerrillas. The worst repression occurred after the guerillas were largely defeated in 1977, when the church, labor unions, artists, intellectuals and university students and professors were targeted. The junta justified this mass terror by exaggerating the guerrilla threat, and even staged attacks to be blamed on guerillas and used frozen dead bodies of guerilla fighters that had been kept in storage for this purpose.〔Alexander Mikaberidze (2013). ''Atrocities, Massacres, and War Crimes: An Encyclopedia.'' ABC-CLIO. (p. 28 & 29 ). ISBN 1598849255〕 Declassified documents of the Chilean secret police cite an official estimate by the Batallón de Inteligencia 601 of 22,000 killed or "disappeared" between 1975 and mid-1978. During this period, it was later revealed that at least 12,000 "disappeared" were detainees held by PEN (''Poder Ejecutivo Nacional'', anglicized as "National Executive Power"), and kept in clandestine detention camps throughout Argentina before eventually being freed under diplomatic pressure.〔''"Durante la vigencia del estado de sitio entre noviembre de 1974 y octubre de 1983, los organismos de derechos humanos denunciaron la existencia de 12 mil presos politicos legales en las distintas cárceles de 'maxima seguridad' a lo largo de todo el territorio de Argentina."''(Entre resistentes e “irrecuperables”: Memorias de ex presas y presos políticos (1974-1983), p. 13. )〕 The number of people believed to have been killed or "disappeared," depending on the source, range from 7,158〔 to 30,000 in the period from 1976 to 1983, when the military was forced from power following Argentina's defeat in the Falklands War.〔(Obituary ) ''The Guardian'', Thursday 2 April 2009〕 In 2003, The National Commission on the Disappearance of Persons claimed the true number of disappeared to be around 13,000.〔("Una duda histórica: no se sabe cuántos son los desaparecidos" ), ''Clarin'', 10 June 2003〕 After democratic government was restored, Congress passed legislation to provide compensation to victims' families. Some 11,000 Argentines as the next of kin have applied to the relevant authorities and received up to US $200,000 each as monetary compensation for the loss of loved ones during the military dictatorship.〔Wright, Thomas C. ''State terrorism in Latin America'', p. 158, Rowman & Littlefield, 2007〕 The exact chronology of the repression is still debated, however, and some sectors claim the long political war started in 1969. Trade unionists were targeted for assassination by the Peronist and Marxist guerrillas as early as 1969,〔The Montoneros established fronts in universities and shantytowns and assassinated union leaders, while the ERP prepared for renewed guerrilla warfare. Revolutionizing Motherhood: The Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo, Marguerite Guzman Bouvard, p. 22, Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2002〕 and individual cases of state-sponsored terrorism against Peronism and the left can be traced back to the Bombing of Plaza de Mayo and Revolución Libertadora in 1955. The Trelew massacre of 1972, the actions of the Argentine Anticommunist Alliance since 1973, and Isabel Martínez de Perón's "annihilation decrees"〔In February 1975, the foundation was laid for a systematic assault on the revolutionary left by a secret decree ordering the Army to annihilate the encampments of Marxist insurgents in Tucumán. Political Violence and Trauma in Argentina, Antonius C. G. M. Robben, p. 145, University of Pennsylvania Press, 2011〕 against left-wing guerrillas during ''Operativo Independencia'' (translates to Operation of Independence) in 1975,〔 have also been suggested as dates for the beginning of the Dirty War. ==Overview== The military, supported by a significant part of the population in the form of the Radical Party and the Socialist Party, opposed Juan Perón's populist government and attempted a ''coup d'état'' in 1951 and two in 1955, before succeeding with one later that year known as Revolución Libertadora. After taking control, the armed forces proscribed Peronism.〔()〕 Soon after the coup, Peronist resistance began organizing in workplaces and trade unions, as the working classes sought economic and social improvements. Over time, as democratic rule was partially restored but promises of legalizing the expression and political liberties for Peronism were not respected, guerrilla groups began to operate in the 1960s, namely the Peronist ''Uturuncos''〔Salas, Ernesto, ''Uturuncos. El origen de la guerrilla peronista'', Biblos, Buenos Aires, 2003, ISBN 950–786–386–9〕 and the Guevarist People's Guerrilla Army (EGP). Both were small and quickly defeated. Jorge Ricardo Masetti, leader of the EGP, which had infiltrated into Salta Province from Bolivia in 1964, is considered by some as Argentina's first "disappeared", as he went missing after the party militants' defeat in clashes with the Argentine gendarmerie. Prior to 1973 the major revolutionary groups were the Peronist Armed Forces (Fuerzas Armadas Peronistas, FAP), the Marxist–Leninist-Peronist〔(Wright, Thomas C. ''Latin America in the era of the Cuban Revolution'', p. 105 ), Praeger (2001)〕 Revolutionary Armed Forces (Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias or FAR), and the Marxist–Leninist〔 Armed Forces of Liberation (Fuerzas Armadas de Liberación or FAL).〔Amstutz, Mark R. ''The Healing of Nations: The Promise and Limits of Political Forgiveness'', p. 250.〕 The FAL guerrillas raided Campo de Mayo in April 1969 and stole 100 assault rifles from the elite 1st Infantry Regiment ''Patricios''.〔''Los 70, Violencia en la Argentina''. p. 119. Ejército Argentino. (Círculo militar, 2001)〕 In time these armed groups consolidated, with the FAR joining the Montoneros, formerly an urban group of intellectuals and students, and the FAP and FAL being absorbed into the ERP. In 1970, Pedro Eugenio Aramburu, one of the military leaders of the 1955 coup, was kidnapped and killed by the Montoneros, in its first claimed military action.〔("Profile of the Montoneros" ), 'El Historiador'', Retrieved 6 August 2010.〕 In 1970, the Marxist People's Revolutionary Army (ERP) was founded. By the early 1970s, leftist guerrillas kidnapped and assassinated high-ranking military and police officers almost weekly. The extreme left bombed and destroyed numerous buildings in the 1970s in its campaign against the government; these belonged chiefly to military〔(Atkins, Stephen E. ''Encyclopedia of Modern Worldwide Extremists and Extremist Groups'' ), p. 202, Greenwood Press (2004)〕 and police hierarchies.〔("18 killed in Argentina after bombing" ), ''The Gazette'' (Montreal), 11 November 1976〕 But a number of civilian and non-governmental buildings were targeted as well, such as the Sheraton Hotel in Buenos Aires, which was bombed in 1972, killing a woman and injuring her husband;〔(''The Free-Lance Star'' (17 October 1972) ). Google News.com (17 October 1972).〕 a crowded theatre in downtown Buenos Aires was bombed in 1975.〔("Stealing funds – Isabel Peron cleared of charge" ). ''Daily News''. 31 December 1975.〕 In 1973, as Juan Perón returned from exile, the Ezeiza massacre marked the end of the alliance between left- and right-wing factions of Peronism. In 1974, Perón withdrew his support of the Montoneros shortly before his death. During the presidency of his widow Isabel, the far-right paramilitary death squad Argentine Anticommunist Alliance (Triple A) emerged. Armed struggle increased, and in 1975 Isabel signed a number of decrees empowering the military and the police to "annihilate" left-wing subversion, most prominently the People's Revolutionary Army (ERP) armed activity in the province of Tucumán. Isabel Martínez de Perón was ousted in 1976 by a military coup. According to the International Congress for Victims of Terrorism in 2010, prior to the military takeover in 1976, there were a total of 16,000 casualties (including killed, wounded or abducted) of left-wing terrorism in Argentina,〔(“Todos podíamos odiar, pero lo que queremos es sonreír cada día” ), ''Tribuna de Salamanca'' (12 February 2010) http://web.archive.org/web/20110724113340/http://www.tribuna.net/noticia/49331/LOCAL/%E2%80%9Ctodos-pod%C3%ADamos-odiar-queremos-sonre%C3%ADr-d%C3%ADa%E2%80%9D.html〕 including civilians and military personnel. Years later in 1995, Argentine intelligence officers claimed that the ERP guerrillas were responsible for the deaths of at least 700 people, in addition to scores of attacks on police and military units, as well as kidnappings and robberies.〔("Top Guerrilla Is Extradited To Argentina" ), ''The New York Times''. (31 October 1995).〕 In 1978, a powerful bomb meant to kill an Argentine admiral ripped through a nine-story apartment building, killing three civilians and trapping others beneath the debris.〔("Admiral's child killed by bomb in Buenos Aires" ), ''St. Petersburg Times''. 2 August 1976〕 The juntas, led by Jorge Rafael Videla until 1981, and then by Roberto Viola and Leopoldo Galtieri until 1983, organised and carried out strong repression of political dissidents (and perceived dissidents) through the government's military and security forces. They were responsible for the illegal arrests, tortures, killings and/or forced disappearances of an estimated 30,000 people. Assassination occurred domestically in Argentina via mass shootings and the throwing of live citizens from airplanes to death in the oceans below. Additionally, 12,000 prisoners,〔''"Durante la vigencia del estado de sitio entre noviembre de 1974 y octubre de 1983, los organismos de derechos humanos denunciaron la existencia de 12 mil presos politicos legales en las distintas cárceles de 'maxima seguridad' a lo largo de todo el territorio de Argentina."'' (Entre resistentes e “irrecuperables”: Memorias de ex presas y presos políticos (1974-1983). )〕 many of whom had not been convicted through legal processes, were detained in a network of 340 secret concentration camps located throughout Argentina. These actions against victims called desaparecidos, because they simply “disappeared” without explanation, were confirmed via Argentine navy officer Adolfo Scilingo, who has publically confessed his participation in the Dirty War, stating, “…we did worse things than the Nazis” (Verbitsky 7). The victims included armed combatants of the ERP and Montoneros guerrillas, but also trade-unionists, students and left-wing activists, journalists and other intellectuals, and their families. The junta referred to their policy of suppressing opponents as the "National Reorganization Process" (''El proceso''). However, the result of these disappearances was not submission of the opposition; it later led to a subversion the military junta in conjunction with other causes.〔 Argentine military and security forces also created paramilitary death squads, operating behind "fronts" as supposedly independent units. Argentina coordinated actions with other South American dictatorships, as in Operation Condor.〔Walter L. Hixson (2009). ''(The Myth of American Diplomacy: National Identity and U.S. Foreign Policy ).'' Yale University Press. (p. 223 ). ISBN 0300151314〕 Accounts by Dirty War survivors indicate that the Argentine government commonly seized innocent people who witnessed the capture of targeted individuals that occurred in public places; physicians’ reports confirm the torture endured by survivors. In 1979, US President Jimmy Carter offered to accept 3,000 PEN detainees, as long as they had no terrorist background.〔Guest, Iain. ''Behind the Disappearances: Argentina's Dirty War Against Human Rights and the United Nations'', p. 498, University of Pennsylvania Press (1990)〕 Faced with increasing public opposition and severe economic problems, the military tried to regain popularity by occupying the disputed Falkland Islands. It lost any remaining favour in its lopsided defeat by Britain in the resulting Falklands War, and stepped aside in disgrace for the restoration of democracy. 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「dirty war」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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